Development of Industries

Development of Industries

• Metallurgy- a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemistry behavior of metallic elements commonly used in the craft of metal working

• A major change was the replacement of organic fuels based on wood with fossil fuels based on coal

• Production of cast steel

• Iron and steel :abundant cheap iron, cast iron was available for mechanical devices

• Henry Bessemeyer and Siemers Martin processes that help to improve the industry.

• Low grade industries

1. s.g. thomas & percy gilchrist invented the slog

• Discovery of alloys

• Steamboat and ship

1. Robert Fulton proved the value of his smoke belching invention "the clermont steamboat"

Famous Women in Science

Famous Women

•  Early civilization

1. Merit Ptah -  was an early physician in ancient Egypt. She is most notable for being the first woman known by name in the history of the field of medicine, and possibly the first named woman in all of science as well. Her picture can be seen on a tomb in the necropolis near the step pyramid of Saqqara. Her son, who was a High Priest, described her as "the Chief Physician." 
2.  Aglaonike - also known as Aganice of Thessaly is cited as the first female astronomer in ancient Greece. She is mentioned in the writings of Plutarch and Apollonuis of Rhodes as the daughter of Hegetor of Thesally. She was regarded as a sorceress for her ability to make the moon disappear from the sky, which has been taken to mean she could predict the time and general area where a lunar eclipse would occur.
3.  Theano -was a Pythagorean philosopher. She was said by many to have been the wife of Pythagoras although others made her the wife of Brontinus. A few fragments and letters ascribed to her have survived which are of uncertain authorship. She is believed by some historians to have been a student of Pythagoras and later a teacher in the Pythagorean school, which had 28 female Pythagoreans participating in it 
4.   Maria the Jewess -or Maria Prophetissima, Maria Prophetissa, Mary Prophetissa, Miriam the Prophetess is estimated to have lived anywhere between the first and third centuries A.D. She is attributed with the invention of several chemical apparatus, is considered to be the first non fictitious alchemist in the Western world, an early pioneer in chemistry (or alchemy), and one of the most famed women in science ever.
6. Hypatia- born between AD 350 and 370; died March 415 was a Greek scholar from Alexandria, Egypt. Considered the first notable woman in mathematics who also taught philosophy and astronomy.

•  Scientific Revolution

 

1. Margaret Cavendish- Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy.
2. Maria Winkelmann- A German astronomer, Maria was taught by her father and uncle, who believed that she deserved the equivalent education bestowed upon boys. Her interest in astronomy was nurtured and she studied with self-taught astronomer and farmer Christopher Arnold, for whom she eventually worked. Through Arnold, Maria developed a relationship with renowned astronomer and mathematician Gottfried Kirch. Despite being 30 years her senior, they married and raised four children who all grew up to study astronomy with their parents.

•  Industrial Revolution

1. Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Châtelet- (17 December 1706, Paris – 10 September 1749, Luneville) was a French mathematician, physician and author during the Age of Enlightenment. Her crowning achievement is considered to be her translation and commentary on Isaac Newton's work Principia Mathematica published in 1759, ten years after her death, hers is still the standard translation in French.
2.  Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze- was a French chemist. She is most commonly known as the spouse of Antoine Lavoisier (Madame Lavoisier) but many do not know of her accomplishments in the field of chemistry: she acted as the laboratory assistant of her spouse and contributed to his work.
3.  Caroline Lucretia Herschel - (16 March 1750 – 9 January 1848) was a British astronomer the sister of astronomer Sir Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel with whom she worked throughout both of their careers. Her most significant contribution to astronomy was the discovery of several comets and in particular the periodic comet 35P/Herschel-Rigollet, which bears her name. At the age of ten, Caroline was struck with Typhus, a bacterial disease spread by lice or fleas. This disease stunted Caroline’s growth and she never grew past four foot three. Due to this deformation, her family assumed that she would never marry and that it was best for her to remain a house servant, which her mother trained her to do until her father’s passing. Her father, Isaac believed that she was not pretty enough to ever marry and that was true, however she accomplished much more in life than marriage and bearing children.

• 19th century

1. Mary Fairfax Somerville- (26 December 1780 – 28 November 1872) was a Scottish science writer and polymath, at a time when women's participation in science was discouraged. She studied mathematics and astronomy, and was the second woman scientist to receive recognition in the United Kingdom after Caroline Herschel.
2. Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace- (10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852), bornAugusta Ada Byron, was an English writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine. Her notes on the engine include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be processed by a machine; as such she is regarded as the world's first computer programmer.
3. Catherine Elizabeth Benson- was the first woman to earn a college bachelor's degree.
4. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin- (May 10, 1900 – December 7, 1979) was an English-American astronomer who in 1925 was first to show that the Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen contradicting accepted wisdom at the time. Payne then studied stars of high luminosity in order to understand the structure of the Milky way. Later, with her husband, she surveyed all the stars brighter than the tenth magnitude. She then studied variable stars, making over 1,250,000 observations with her assistants. This work later was extended to the Magellanic Clouds, adding a further 2,000,000 observations of variable stars. This data was used to determine the paths of stellar evolution. 

Progress in Geology

Progress in Geology

Geology- is the study of the solid Earth and the processes by which it is shaped and changed. Geology provides primary evidence for plate tectonics, the history of life and evolution and past climates. In modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration, is publically important for predicting and understanding natural hazards plays an essential role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic disipline.

Contributors

 

• Jean Andre Deluc and Horace Benedict de Saussure-  first to use the word geology from Greek word Geo meaning Earth and logos meaning speech.

•  Alfred Wegener- continental drift(is the movement of the Earth's continent relative to each other. It was not until the development of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s, that a sufficient geological explanation of that movement was found.)

•  Robert S. Dietz and Harry s. Hess

 Seafloor spreading occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics.

• SK Runcorn

   concept of paleomagnetism(is the study of the record of the Earth's magnetic field in rocks. Certain minerals in rocks can record direction and intensity of the field as it has changed over geologic time. This provides information on the geodynamo and the fluid dynamics of the outer core of the Earth. The record of these changes in rocks and sediments provides a time scale that is used in geochronology).

• Gene Shoemaker- gave the study of the moon to the Lunar geologist.

 

 

Progress in Medicine

Progress in Medicine

 Medicine-the science of diagnosing and treating or preventing disease and damage the body or mind.

 Medical Advancement

•  HPV Vaccine-The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine may prevent infection with certain species of human papillomavirus associated with the development of cervical cancer, genital warts and some less common cancers.

•  Robot doing surgeries-increased the ability of cancer surgeons to get clean margins and good magnification of the sutures.

• Face transplant surgeries-People with faces disfigured by trauma, burns, disease, or birth defects might benefit from the procedure.

• MRI & rTMS-

1.  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), is primarily a noninvasive medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize detailed internal structure and limited function of the body. MRI provides much greater contrast between the different soft tissues of the body than computed tomography (CT) does, making it especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging.
2. repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), has been tested as a treatment tool for various neurological and psychiatric disorders including migraines,strokes, Parkinson's disease, dystonia, tinnitus, depression and auditory hallucinations.

•  New drugs treating for cancer:

1. Herceptin
2. Gleevec

• Stem cell research -

1.  Stem cells are cells found in all multi cellular organisms. They are characterized by the ability to renew themselves through mitotic cell division and differentiate into a diverse range of specialized cell types.  
2.  human embryonic stem cells

• IT among Dr's. and patients-made life safer for the patients and physicians have answers in a matter of seconds.

•   Human genome discoveries - genes can now be use in screening diseases.

•   Radioactive Isotopes- atoms in an unstable for:

1.    Breast cancer - brachytheraphy
2.    Liver cancer - microsphere brachytheraphy

•    Alzheimer's disease by:

1.   SPECT-Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT, or less commonly, SPET) is a nuclear medicine tomographic imaging technique using gamma rays. It is very similar to conventional nuclear medicine planar imaging using a gamma camera. However, it is able to provide true 3D information. This information is typically presented as cross-sectional slices through the patient, but can be freely reformatted or manipulated as required. 
2.  PET(Positron Emission Tomography)is a nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide(tracer), which is introduced into the body on a biologically active molecule. Images of tracer concentration in 3-dimensional or 4-dimensional space (the 4th dimension being time) within the body are then reconstructed by computer analysis. In modern scanners, this reconstruction is often accomplished with the aid of a CT X-ray scan performed on the patient during the same session, in the same machine.

•  HIV-Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a lentivirus (a member of the retrovirus family) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),[1][2] a condition in humans in which theimmune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections. Infection with HIV occurs by the transfer of blood, semen, vaginal fluid, pre-ejaculate, or breast milk. Within these bodily fluids, HIV is present as both free virus particles and virus within infected immune cells. The four major routes of transmission are unsafe sex, contaminated needles, breast milk, and transmission from an infected mother to her baby at birth (perinatal transmission). Screening of blood products for HIV has largely eliminated transmission through blood transfusions or infected blood products in the developed world.

 

Progress in Biology

Progress in biology during the 20th Century

•  1900 – 1910

 Power of experimentation was demonstrated

•  1928

 Anti –bacterial agent was discovered (penicillin)

•  Gregor Mendel – Mendel’s Law of Heredity 

•  X – Ray crystallography- Method of determining the arrangement of an atom within the crystal. 

Other discoveries

• structure and functions of DNA(Deoxyribonucleic acid ,is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms with the exception of some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprint, like a recipe or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells such as proteins and RNA molecules).

•  the structure or part of DNA, double helix

• Structure and functions of proteins. (insulin, hemoglobin, antibodies)

• discovery of essential nutrients.

1. Macro nutrients

          Carbohydrates

          Proteins

          Fats (fat soluble vitamin and water soluble in vitamin

      2. Micro nutrients

           Vitamins

          Minerals

          Water

Progress in Chemistry

Progress in chemistry

 Chemistry – is the science of the nature of the matter and its transformation. It is also the science of matter that deals with the composition structure and prosperities of substances and the transformations that they undergo.

 Branches

• Organic chemistry – scientific study of the structures, properties, compositions, reactions and preparations of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
• Inorganic chemistry – concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds.
• Biochemistry – study of chemical processes in living organisms.
• Electrochemistry – study of chemical reactions which takes place in a conductor with involves electron transfer.
• Geochemistry – study of chemical changes on the Earth.
• Analytical chemistry – is the study of preparation, identification and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.

Discoveries

•   Fire – a mystical force that could transform one substance into another while producing heat and fire. A chemical reaction which is first use in chemical manner.
•  Metallurgy – methods of purification of metals.
•  Gold – known in early Egypt as early as 2600 B.C. it becomes a precious metal.
•  Alloy – heralded the Bronze Age. Become a better armor and weapons.
•  Alchemy - change base metals into gold, investigating the preparation of the "elixir of longevity", and achieving ultimate wisdom, involving the improvement of the alchemist as well as the making of several substances described as possessing unusual properties.
•  Atomism: Atom is the most indivisible part of matter.
• Periodic table - is a tabular display of the chemical elements. Its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry providing a useful framework to classify, systematize, and compare all of the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has found many applications in chemistry,physics, biology and engineering, especially chemical engineering. The current standard table contains 118 elements to date. (elements 1 - 118)
•  Scientific Method- refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.

 Contributors:

• Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr – atomic structure
• Marie and Pierre Curie – radioactivity
• James Watson and Francis Crick – DNA model
• Rosalind Franklin – x ray diffraction
• George de Hevesy – first to use radioactive atoms

 

Chemical Industry

• extracting metals from ores
• making pottery and glazes
• fermenting beer and wine
• making pigments for cosmetics and painting
• extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume
• making cheese
• dying cloth
• tanning leather
• rendering fat into soap
• making glass

Where Milky Way galaxy got its name?

Common names

Birds' Path

The name "Birds' Path" is used in several Uralic and Turkic languages and in the Baltic languages.

Milky Way

Many European languages have borrowed, directly or indirectly, the Greek name for the Milky Way, including English and Latin.

Road to Santiago

The Milky Way was traditionally used as a guide by pilgrims traveling to the holy site at Compostela, hence the use of "The Road to Santiago" as a name for the Milky Way. Curiously, La Voje Ladee "The Milky Way" was also used to refer to the pilgrimage road.[3]

Silver River

The Chinese name "Silver River" (銀河) is used throughout East Asia, including Korea and Vietnam. In Japan, "Silver River" (銀河) means galaxies in general.

River of Heaven

The Japanese name for the Milky Way is the "River of Heaven" (天の川).

Straw Way

In a large area from Central Asia to Africa, the name for the Milky Way is related to the word for straw. It has been suggested that the term was spread by Arabs who in turn borrowed it from Armenia.

List of name in various languages

Greek: Γαλαξίας κύκλος Galaxias Kyklos "Milky Circle", from a myth.
Hindi: akashaganga "Ganges River of Heaven", from a myth.[1]
Catalan: Via Làctia "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Catalan: Camí de Sant Jaume, "The Road to Santiago".
French: La voie lactée "The Milky Way".
Irish: Bealach na Bó Finne "The Fair Cow's Path"
Irish: Claí Mór na Réaltaí "The Big Fence of Stars"
Irish: Slabhbra Luigh "Lugh's Chain"
Italian: Via Lattea "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Latin: Via Lactea "Milky Way", translated from Greek.
Portuguese: Estrada de Santiago, "The Road to Santiago" (used in European Portuguese only)
Portuguese: Via Láctea "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Romanian: Calea Lactee "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Spanish: Via láctea "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Spanish: Compostela "Field of Stars", originally from Latin
Spanish: Camino de Santiago "The Road to Santiago".
Welsh: Llwybr Llaethog "Milky Way", translated from the Latin.
Welsh: Caer Wydion "The Fort of Gwydion" (Gwydion).
Danish: Mælkevejen "The Milky Way".
Faroese: Vetrarbreytin "The Winter Way".
Dutch: Melkweg "Milky Way" translated from Latin.
English: Milky Way, translated from Latin.[2]
German: Milchstraße "Milky Way"
Icelandic: Vetrarbrautin "The Winter Way."
Norwegian: Melkeveien "The milky way" (Bokmål, comes from Danish)
Norwegian: Vinterbrauta "The Winter Way" (Nynorsk, related to Icelandic)
Swedish: Vintergatan "Winter Street", because it is more visible during the winter in Scandinavia and looks like a snowy street.
Armenian: Յարդ զողի Ճանապարհ hard goghi chanaparh "Straw Thief's Way", from a myth.[1]
Bosnian: Mliječni Put, "Milky Way" translated from Latin.
Bulgarian: Млечен Път, "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Croatian: Mliječni Put "Milky Way" translated from Latin. Traditionally it was named Kumova slama (Godfather's straw)
Czech: Mléčná dráha "Milky Way" translated from Greek or Latin.
Latvian: Putnu Ceļš, The Birds' Path
Lithuanian: Paukščių Takas, The Birds' Path
Polish: Droga Mleczna "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Russian: Млечный путь "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Serbian: Mlečni put "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Serbian: Млечни пут "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Slovak: Mliečna dráha "Milky Way", translated from Latin.
Slovene: Rimska cesta "The Roman Road", because pilgrims followed it when traveling to Rome.
Ukrainian: Чумацький шлях "Way of Chumak"
Arabic: درب التبانة‎ (Darb Al-Tabana) means Milky way.
Hebrew: שביל החלב‎ "The Milky Way".
Maltese: Triq Sant' Anna, "St Anne's way".
Chechen: Ça Taxina Taça "the route of scattered straw"
Estonian: Linnutee "Way of Birds", from a myth.
Finnish: Linnunrata "Way of Birds", from a myth.
Erzya: Каргонь ки "Way of the Crane"
Hungarian: Hadak Útja "The Road of the Warriors", from a myth. However this is the historical term, today it is known simply as "Tejút", meaning "Milk Way".
Indonesian: Bima Sakti "Magical Bima", a character in Sanskrit epic Mahabharata
Malay: Bima Sakti "Magical Bima", a character in Sanskrit epic Mahabharata
Basque: Esne bidea, from Latin.
Cherokee: ᎩᎵ ᎤᎵᏒᏍᏓᏅᏱ Gili Ulisvsdanvyi "The Way the Dog Ran Away", from a myth.
Chinese: 銀河 "Silver River".
Georgian: ირმის ნახტომი, irmis naxtomi "The Deer Jump"
Japanese: 天の川 amanogawa "River of Heaven"
Korean: 은하 eunha "Silver River", from Chinese, or "미리내"(mirinae) in pure Korean. The Milky Way is specifically called "Uri Eunha" ("Our Galaxy").
Thai: ทางช้างเผือก "The way of the white elephant".
Turkish: Samanyolu "Road of Straw"
Vietnamese: Ngân Hà "Silver River", translated from Chinese.